1 - Three Stages in Human Evolution

2 - Stone Age Humans

3 - Greece & Rome

4 - The 17th and 18th Centuries

5 - The Social Reforms of the 19th and 20 Centuries

6 - 1950 to 2000 - The Coming Gerontocracy

7 - The Problem

8 -The Solution

Some 2,500 years ago, Hippocrates introduced the rational approach to medicine. While being deferential to the gods and working within the prevailing cosmological hypotheses, he initiated the building of medical knowledge base on empirical, clinical observation.

"Whoever having undertaken to speak or write on Medicine, have first laid down for themselves some hypothesis to their argument, such as hot, or cold, or moist, or dry, or whatever else they choose (thus reducing their subject within a narrow compass, and supposing only one or two original causes of diseases or of death among mankind), are all clearly mistaken in much that they say ...." Hippocrates: On Ancient Medicine.

The Oath - By Hippocrates Translated by Francis Adams I SWEAR by Apollo the physician, and Aesculapius, and Health, and All-heal, and all the gods and god- desses, that, according to my ability and judgment, I will keep this Oath and this stipulation- to reckon him who taught me this Art equally dear to me as my parents, to share my substance with him, and relieve his necessities if required; to look upon his offspring in the same footing as my own brothers, and to teach them this art, if they shall wish to learn it, without fee or stipulation; and that by precept, lecture, and every other mode of instruction, I will impart a knowledge of the Art to my own sons, and those of my teachers, and to disciples bound by a stipulation and oath according to the law of medicine, but to none others I will follow that system of regimen which, according to my ability and judgment, I consider for the benefit of my patients, and abstain from what- ever is deleterious and mischievous. I will give no deadly medicine to any one if asked, nor suggest any such counsel; and in like manner I will not give to a woman a pessary to produce abortion. With purity and with holiness I will pass my life and practice my Art. I will not cut persons laboring under the stone, but will leave this to be done by men who are practitioners of this work. Into whatever houses I enter, I will go into them for the benefit of the sick, and will abstain from every volun- tary act of mischief and corruption; and, further from the seduction of females or males, of freemen and slaves. Whatever, in connection with my pro- fessional practice or not, in connection with it, I see or hear, in the life of men, which ought not to be spoken of abroad, I will not divulge, as reckoning that all such should be kept secret. While I continue to keep this Oath unviolated, may it be granted to me to enjoy life and the practice of the art, respected by all men, in all times! But should I trespass and violate this Oath, may the reverse be my lot! - END

Although great civilizations, the average life-expectancy in Greece is estimated to have been only 18 and 22 in Rome. However, a small number of hearty individuals did make it to advanced age - Socrates lived for 70 years, Plato for 80, and Aristotle for 62. These ages were so exceptional that they were regarded as virtually immortal.